Overall Green Tropical Cyclone alert for TWELVE-21 Off-shore from 02 Aug 2021 06:00 UTC to 06 Aug 2021 00:00 UTC

GDACS is a cooperation framework between the United Nations, the European Commission and disaster managers worldwide to improve alerts, information exchange and coordination in the first phase after major sudden-onset disasters.

Overall Green alert Tropical Cyclone for TWELVE-21

Off-shore

05 Aug 2021 12 UTC

click on

to select bulletin time

Meteorological source:

GDACS JTWC

Impact Single TC

Impact based on all weather systems in the area

Impact

Tropical Cyclone TWELVE-21 can have a low humanitarian impact based on the maximum sustained wind speed,exposed population and vulnerability.

Meteorological source	GFS
Exposed countries	Japan
Exposed population	No people in Category 1 or higher
Maximum wind speed	76 km/h
Maximum storm surge	0.5 m (05 Aug 15:15 UTC)
Vulnerability	--

GDACS Score

GDACS alert score for Tropical Cyclones is 0.5 (GREEN Alert), 1.5 (ORANGE Alert), 2.5 (RED Alert)
For more info on GDACS alert score click here.

	Wind	Storm surge	Rainfall	GDACS score
GFS Current	76 km/h	0.5 m	79 mm	0.5
GFS Overall	104 km/h	0.8 m	554 mm	0.5
Maximum winds, storm surge, rainfall (Current: over the next 72 h, Overall: entire TC track)

TOP

Wind

104 km/h

Up to 20 thousand can be affected by wind speeds of Tropical Storm strength or above

Wind exposed population - AoIs

Estimations based on the bulletin of 05 Aug 2021 12:00 UTC

Category	Country	Population
Tropical Storm	Japan	19,431

See TC classification SSHS

Wind Impact Timeline

people affected <=10000

10000< people affected <=100000

people affected >100000

N°	Date (UTC)	Max Winds (km/h)	Pop in Cat. 1 or higher	TS	Cat. 1	Cat. 2	Cat. 3	Cat. 4	Cat. 5	Countries
1	02 Aug 2021 06:00	54	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
2	02 Aug 2021 12:00	58	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
3	02 Aug 2021 18:00	65	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
4	03 Aug 2021 00:00	61	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
5	03 Aug 2021 06:00	68	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
6	03 Aug 2021 12:00	72	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
7	03 Aug 2021 18:00	76	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
8	04 Aug 2021 00:00	65	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
9	04 Aug 2021 06:00	72	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
10	04 Aug 2021 12:00	68	-		-	-	-	-	-	Japan
11	04 Aug 2021 18:00	76	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
12	05 Aug 2021 00:00	72	-		-	-	-	-	-	Japan
13	05 Aug 2021 06:00	83	-		-	-	-	-	-	Japan
14	05 Aug 2021 12:00	76	-		-	-	-	-	-	Japan

Download:

Impact estimation for the next 72h

TOP

Rainfall

Rain exposed population - AoIs

Estimations based on the bulletin of 05 Aug 2021 12:00 UTC

Level	Country	Population
100-250 mm	Japan	22,879,269
50-100 mm	Japan	24,152,202

Rain Impact Timeline

people affected <=10000

10000< people affected <=100000

people affected >100000

N°	Date (UTC)	Max Rainfall (mm)	Pop >100mm or higher	50-100	100-250	250-500	500-750	750-1000	>1000	Countries
1	02 Aug 2021 06:00	22	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
2	02 Aug 2021 12:00	58	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
3	02 Aug 2021 18:00	113	260 thousand			-	-	-	-	Japan
4	03 Aug 2021 00:00	79	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
5	03 Aug 2021 06:00	103	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
6	03 Aug 2021 12:00	181	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
7	03 Aug 2021 18:00	197	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
8	04 Aug 2021 00:00	149	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
9	04 Aug 2021 06:00	138	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
10	04 Aug 2021 12:00	164	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
11	04 Aug 2021 18:00	147	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
12	05 Aug 2021 00:00	156	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
13	05 Aug 2021 06:00	172	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
14	05 Aug 2021 12:00	272	22.9 million			-	-	-	-	Japan

Impact estimation for the next 72h

TOP

StormSurge

0.5 m

The maximum Storm surge height is 0.5m in Changsu, Republic of Korea. This height is estimated for 05 Aug 2021 15:15 UTC .

The JRC has developed an experimental global storm surge model, which is run after each advisory issued by the regional tropical cyclone centres. The calculations are published about 20 minutes after a new advisory is detected by GDACS. The calculations identify the populated places affected by storm surge up to three days in advance, using the forecasted track. When forecasts change, the associated storm surge changes too and alert levels may go up or down. All links, data, statistics and maps refer to the latest available calculation. If the calculation for the last advisory is not completed, the latest available calculation is shown.

Storm Surge Exposed population - AoIs

Storm Surge Exposed locations

Calculation based on the bulletin of 05 Aug 2021 12:00 UTC

Alert	Date (UTC)	Name	Country	Storm surge height (m)
	05 Aug 2021 15:15	Changsu	Republic of Korea	0.5
	05 Aug 2021 15:15	Aya-ri	Republic of Korea	0.5
	05 Aug 2021 15:15	Ch'ongam	Republic of Korea	0.5
	05 Aug 2021 15:00	Chamdu	Republic of Korea	0.4
	05 Aug 2021 15:00	Chinch'ang	Republic of Korea	0.4
	05 Aug 2021 15:15	Changjong-ni	Republic of Korea	0.3
	05 Aug 2021 15:15	Chijung-ni	Republic of Korea	0.3
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Anp'o	Republic of Korea	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Chungbang	Republic of Korea	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Chabong	Republic of Korea	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Yeosu	Republic of Korea	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Chukp'o	Republic of Korea	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Hangch'on	Republic of Korea	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Namhae	Republic of Korea	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Gonyang	Republic of Korea	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Pit'o	Republic of Korea	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Samcheongpo	Republic of Korea	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Wase	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Asato	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Naze	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Nakachi	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Daikuma	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Takumo	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Kominato	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Akina	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Ashikebu	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Sakiharu	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Tokuchi	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Okachi	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Sekirubu	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Tatsugo	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Akaogi	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Taira	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Akagina	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Setta	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Manya	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Sakibaru	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Kasari	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Usuku	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Nago	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Nakao	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Teima	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Obo	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Ogimi	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Kaata	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 14:15	Ando	Republic of Korea	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 16:00	Ada	Japan	0.2
	05 Aug 2021 14:15	Changdo-ri	Republic of Korea	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:30	Hedo	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Asama	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Hedono	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Okamae	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Matsubara	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Sakibaru	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Setaki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Koshima	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Nishiakina	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Tobe	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Yaesao	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	San	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Katoku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Kametsu	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Kametoku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Tokuwase	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Yoro	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:15	Ch'angch'on	Republic of Korea	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Kinoko	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Itokina	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Isen	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Bane	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Kenfuku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Meteku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Omo	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Kinen	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Akamine	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Yaja	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Furusalo	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Tamajiro	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Degi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Wadomari	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Nishibaru	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Kunigami	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:45	Aech'o-ri	Republic of Korea	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Shimajiri	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Tamina	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Kamijiro	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	China	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Kuronuki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Higashieue	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Toguchi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:30	Izena	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Chinsan-ni	Republic of Korea	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:15	Yobuko	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:15	Tobo	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:15	Karatsu	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:15	Oka	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:15	Fuchinoe	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:15	Keya	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:15	Fukae	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:15	Maebaru	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Ikechi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Ukearnuro	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Chabang	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Kano	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Ashito	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Nama	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Mugiya	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Oshikaku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Osai	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Akitoku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Saneku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Adachi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Satsukawa	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Hyo	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Sukomo	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 18:00	Tana	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Yui	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Koniya	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Kachiura	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Tokuhama	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Shodon	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Ikenma	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Sokaru	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Sekko	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:45	Katoku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Kuji	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Ashiken	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Imasato	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Yuwan	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Amurogama	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Niimura	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Nishi-Nakama	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Sennai	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Aoku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Gusuku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Misato	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Nakazato	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 18:00	Shimajiri	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 18:00	Gakiya	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 18:00	Maetomari	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:15	Kin	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:15	Ichi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Heda	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Kudadon	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Miyazaki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Shimo-Tashima	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Kisaki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Niinauri	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Tachibandori	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Haruguchi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Takanabe	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:00	Uwae	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Uken	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:15	Sacheon	Republic of Korea	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Kiire	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Ibusuki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Yamagawa	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Izashiki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Baba	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	O-nejime	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Nakamura	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:30	Kok'ori	Republic of Korea	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:15	Ishimine	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:15	Kadena	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:15	Atsuta	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:15	Ishikawa	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:15	Henna	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Onkachi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Yamato	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Shiida	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Buzen	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Higashiyoshitomi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Nakatsu	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Imazu	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Naon	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Tomai	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:00	Ichibuura	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:00	Yamanaka	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:00	Azuchi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:00	Hirado	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:00	Emukae	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Aka	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Zamami	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Awaren	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Tokashiku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:00	Nomo	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:00	Wakimisaki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:00	Shikimi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:00	Fukahori	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:00	Mieda	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:00	Nagasaki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:00	Mogi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 13:15	Nishinoura	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Tayooka	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Beppu	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Kitsuki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Oita	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Aki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 15:45	Tsurusaki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:15	Taniyama	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:15	Kagoshima	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:15	Yuno	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:15	Tarumizu	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:45	Mikuriya	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:45	Matsuura	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:45	Ao	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:45	Madarashima	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:45	Imabuku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 12:45	Kusuku	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Araki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Uekatsu	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Akatsure	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Urabaru	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:45	Aden	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:15	Furue	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:15	Somachi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:15	Shitooke	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Sanezaki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Shimoda	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Irino	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Nada	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Saga	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Yotsunoura	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 16:45	Oryuzako	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Chifuwa	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Naha	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:30	Fusozaki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:15	Fumoto	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:15	Futagawa	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Tado	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Hiraki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Uchinoumi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Oura	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Mitsuguchi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Kami-Oda	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Kazahaya	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Komatsubara	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Uchiura	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Kanashi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Mitsu	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Kubi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Okitomo	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Ocho	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Okushi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Daicho	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Mitarai	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Hama	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Akashi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Sukune	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Nakano	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Okiura	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Takehara	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Kinoe	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Onashi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Shiramizu	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Takasakicho	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Takasaki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Munagata	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Fukuda	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Kuchisubo	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Kinehara	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Tadanoumi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Higai	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Miyanoura	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Tamagi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Inokuchi	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Mukuna	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Sakai	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Noji	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Ryomei	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Saiwaishinden	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Seto	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Nishinocho	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:30	Yosokuni	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:15	Nanakuba	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:15	Koike	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 17:15	Koramuki	Japan	0.1
	05 Aug 2021 14:15	Cholge	Republic of Korea	0.1

Disclaimer
While we try everything to ensure accuracy, this information is purely indicative and should not be used for any decision making without alternate sources of information.
The JRC is not responsible for any damage or loss resulting from the use of the information presented on this website.
The designations employed and the presentation of material on the map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the European Union concerning the legal status of any country, territory or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.